History of Adult/Community Based Education in the 1960s

EDAC 631-800

Mishele Adams

February 19,2017

Mishele Adams:	Commented On:
	Wayne Tozzi (Group 4)

         President Kennedy referred to the 1960s as a ‘period of development’. The 1960s are most known for civil rights protests, the Vietnam War, the Cuban missile crisis and the assassinations of influential men. Although there were many things going on within the United States members of the community saw a need for improvement and acted accordingly.

         The 1960s was an important era for the growth of the adult/community education field. Community-based education began to emerge during this time. The Vietnam War began years before but was still being fought during the 1960s. The cost of war was taking a toll on the American economy and in 1964 President Lyndon B. Johnson decided to launch a bill unofficially known as War on Poverty. Many programs emerged from this legislation including, Head Start. It is a government funded non-profit program that provided early childhood education to low-income families. “Head Start was designed to help break the cycle of

poverty, providing preschool children of low-income families with a comprehensive program to meet their emotional, social, health, nutritional and psychological needs (Head Start HQ).”

         Although there were many social and political issues happening based on race, there were an abundance of community organizations during this time that specifically focused on bettering the lives of individuals in the community. The Civil Rights Movement began in 1954, but during the 60s new organizations emerged. The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense focused specifically on helping the African American community. It was founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California. This group was non-governmental and actually worked against the government using militant defense. Although their primary focus was self-defense for the black community they provided other services as well. They started the Panther’s Free Breakfast for School Children Program in 1969. “By the end of the year the Panthers set up kitchens in cities across the nation feeding over 10,000 children every day before they went to school (Williams, 1968).” The same year the organization also opened a free medical center, started blood drives, did door to door health services for sickle cell anemia, helped the homeless find housing and gave away free clothing and food. They also began to teach socialist survival programs for black communities. The program focused on teaching black individuals how to defend themselves against injustice and educate them on their legal rights.

         Looking at the history of community-based education it is important to see there are certain groups within communities that need help meeting their basic needs. With the help of others that are more privileged that are given more opportunities and able to reach their full potential.

Head Start Headquarters: Retrieved from          https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ohs/about/history-of-head-start

Morabia, A. (2016). Unveiling the black panther party legacy to   public health. American Journal of Public Health, 106 (10), 1732-1733. Doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2016.303405

Marciano, J. (2016) Lessons from the vietnam war. Monthly       Review, 68 (7), 43. doi: 10.14452/MR-068-07-2016-11_4

Siegel, Robert. (2004, January 8) Lyndon Johnson’s War on      Poverty. Retrieved from          http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15896       60

Williams, Shirley (1968, October 26). The Black Panther.          Retrieved from           https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-  panthers/

Areas	Summary
Social Background	Civil rights movement, Vietnam war
Highlights	The country was experiencing difficult times trying to bring everyone together.
Influential Factors	Poverty from the war, black community fighting for equality
Implications	The Black Panthers & War on Poverty (Head Start)

The Roots of Community Education: Kim Clist

Name	Commented on
Kim Clist	Susan Ward & Katie Lowe

The Roots of Community Education

Kim Clist EDAC 631, Instructor Bo Chang

Introduction

In 1932, Myles Horton began the Highlander Folk School program in Tennessee; a progressive educational concept where the purpose of education was to change society and the teachers came from within the community seeking to make change, in this case the working-class poor (Horton, 1990). As revered and groundbreaking as this concept of grassroots education was, it was not the beginning of adult community education.  The real beginning had a far more political launch pad. A series of congressional actions comprised of the Morrill Act of 1862 and 1890 as well as the Smith Lever Act of 1914 were the catalysts to take education out of the classroom, off campuses, and into the communities, homes, and fields of everyday Americans.  Adult community education in America has its roots in the university systems with the creation of Cooperative Extension – extending university research and knowledge out into the communities.

Highlights

Originally introduced in 1859, the Morrill Act was designed to promote agriculture and industry skills training in rural America. The barrier was the precedent that all aspects of education, including funding and oversight was left solely to the states. After the start of teh Civil War, Representative Justin Morrill of Maine recognized the need for trained troops and reintroduced his beloved bill, including the provision that the newly established institutions would teach military tactics in addition to agricultural training. President Abraham Lincoln signed it into law in 1862. Twenty-five years after the war ended, the Morrill Act of 1890 was passed providing more funding for what Representative Morrill referred to as the arts of peace. This new bill also established separate but equal funding to colleges that served black students (Comer, Campbell, Edwards & Hillison, 2006).

Almost 25 years later, the Commission on Country Life, appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt, recommended the establishment of a nationalized system to expand that training of agriculture and industry into communities. And in 1914, the Smith-Lever Act created the Cooperative Extension System. This system enacted a multi-level funding structure which included federal, state, and local government partners; and pushed educators out into rural communities. Through education, marketing, and grassroots community organizing, extension educators have helped secure national food and fiber needs, playing instrumental roles during WWI, WWII and the Great Depression. Extension continues to play a crucial role in adult community education, working with the USDA to help implement its objectives of “developing the rural economy, training tomorrow’s leaders, disseminating knowledge, and pursuing sustainable agriculture and the environment” (Wang, 2014).

Influential Factors

The first extension Agent (educator) employed by this system was J.A. Evans of the University of Arkansas. In PowerPoint presentation designed to celebration the impacts of 100 years of adult community education in extension, they outline the programs still in action today on their campus. While called by different names by the 76 universities, each Cooperative Extension has a minimum of 4 core programming areas including agriculture, family living, youth development, and community & economic development. These areas include world renowned programs like 4-H and Master Gardeners (Delivering practical knowledge backed but cutting edge research for more than 100 years). At its inception, more than half of Americans lived in rural areas, and farming compromised a third of all employment. The focus of educating and supporting rural populations and the nation's farm families made it possible for the American agricultural revolution, drastically increasing production and efficiency:

• In 1945, it took up to 14 labor-hours to produce 100 bushels of corn on 2 acres of land.
• By 1987, it took just under 3 labor-hours to produce that same 100 bushels of corn on just over 1 acre.
• In 2002, that same 100 bushels of corn were produced on less than 1 acre.
  (Cooperative Extension History)

At the same time, this form of adult community education came together in the form of The Wisconsin Idea, a vision of extending the research based knowledge and expertise of the university to every corner of the state. Charles Van Hise and Bob La Follette, peers during their undergrad years at UW Madison, joined forces years later as Federal Legislator and UW President, using their influence to promote the concept because they wanted to “make sure that conditions in the state – physical, social and legal - did not allow a shift of power away from the broadest number of citizens and toward a limited group of powerful, monied people” (Drury, 2011). If knowledge is power, the establishment of extension was the effort to keep the power in the hands of all people.

Implications

Today, extension programs around the nation are still playing a key role in community education. From training volunteer 4-H leaders and newly elected local government officials, to advocating for expanded broadband access to rural areas, to facilitating community discussions around visioning or divisive issues like CAFOs or frac sand mining; the impacts of the cooperative extension model of community education strengthens the people of each state right where they are.  Adult community education is always about meeting people where they are and giving the learning opportunities they need and desire. While dwindling federal and state funding and a changing technological culture are forcing Extension programs around the nation to take a look at their models and adapt to new cultural norms, the idea of research based adult community education is still a driving force today.  

Social Background	50% of American people lived on farms. 1/3 of the workforce is employed in agriculture. Civil War requires military training which becomes leverage to provide federal funding to states for educational initiatives around rural living and agriculture which is the impetuous for a national standard of adult community education outreach.
Highlights	Morrill Act of 1862 & 1890 establish funding for educational institutions to focus on agricultural and industry learning. The Smith-Lever Act of 1912 establishes the Cooperative Extension System which takes the research and knowledge of the university into the communities. There are currently 76 land-grant universities with Cooperative Extension systems across the United States.
Influential Factors	Crucial to connecting the needs of the nation to the agricultural supplies necessary for WWI, WWII, and the Great Depression. The idea that power through knowledge is imperative for a democratic society and that power should be held by the people takes root in The Wisconsin Idea.
Implications	Establishing the research and knowledge of university systems can and should be fully employed to bring adult education into communities.

References

Comer, M., Campbell, T., Edwards, K., & Hillison, J. (2006). Cooperative Extension and the 1890 land-grant institution: The real story. The Journal of Extension. vol. 44, num. 3.

Cooperative Extension History. http://www.uaex.edu/about-extension/history.aspx

Delivering practical knowledge backed but cutting edge research for more than 100 years. https://uaex.edu/centennial/docs/history-powerpoint.pptx

Lewis, H. M. (1990). Introduction. The long haul: an autobiography. 1990 (pp. xix-xxi). New York: Doubleday.

Wang, SL. (2014). "Cooperative Extension System: Trends and Economic Impacts on U.S. Agriculture". Choices. Quarter 1.

Drury, G. (2011). The Wisconsin Idea: The Vision that Made Wisconsin Famous. Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis. Madison: University of Wisconsin Madison.  http://ls.wisc.edu/assets/misc/documents/wi-idea-history-intro-summary-essay.pdf

History of Adult Community Education in the 1980s - Joe DeGraaf

Community Based Education in the 1980s

Joe DeGraaf	Commented On: Wayne Tozzi, Michelle Hobby, Mishele Adams, Kim Clist

            The 1980s were a shifting point for both community education and the country. The United States elected Ronald Reagan as its 40^th president, bringing with him a new mindset for the country’s education reform. America still struggled with the Cold War and desegregation was yet to be realized as complete. The personal computer was introduced by IBM and women like Sandra Day O’Conner and Sally Ride broke through gender boundaries. It was a time of great controversy and change and education was not to be left out.

            Adult education in the 1980s was still developing as a formal system of education. The Adult Education Act, which was created in the 1960s, was amended in 1984 and reauthorized in 1988 (Rose, 1991, pg. 26). This reauthorization appropriated $200 million to adult education with a minimum of $250,000 to each state, substantially increasing the amount of federal funds available to adult educators (Rose, 1991, pg. 26). This re-appropriated money, though beneficial for some efforts in adult education, was also taken from the general community education allowance.

            The Reagan administration’s goals for education were to promote literacy while simultaneously cutting costs. Literacy was later defined by the National Literacy Act of 1991 as “an individual's ability to read, write, and speak in English, and compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve one's goals, and develop one's knowledge and potential” (Irwin, 1991, pg. 7).

The administration determined to do this through the use of existing organizations, businesses, and industries where training and education could be provided with little or no cost to the federal government. This was amended, over time throughout the 1980s, to increase the definition of how volunteers were to be used and trained, as well as restrictions on how for-profit organizations could only use volunteers for supplementary purposes (Rose, 1991, pg. 27). This helped protect education from becoming a means for businesses to exploit learners as volunteer labor and to ensure quality education in all sectors.

            While adult education in a formal institutional setting received increased attention, community education at large was put under greater strain. With the additional focus on cutting costs, community education was left to fend for itself under the new regulations. Community education activities “slowed in the 1980s as college services came under closer scrutiny from external budget allocators, and grew again in the 1990s as college leaders continually sought new avenues for funding services to particular community groups” (Cohen, 1996, pg. 276).

            The 1980s also saw a move to the forefront of general education’s goals of “acquisition of general knowledge; achievement of some level of basic competencies; preparation of students for further, more advanced work; and the acquisition of skills and knowledge to live effectively in society” (Cross & Fideler, 1989, pg. 211). These goals would define what was thought of for adult education and how programs could serve the community.

            Community education, though temporarily slowed, saw significant development of its own. The 1980s brought a “new trend in community development, often referred to as community building or community (building) initiatives” (Van Der Veen, 2003, pg. 586). These programs provided adult education opportunities for job training, literacy, health education, cultural projects, and senior citizen activities (Van Der Veen, 2003, pg. 586). In keeping with formal education, community education and community colleges saw an increased focus on literacy, with 74% of community college administrators ranking “reading, writing, and mathematics competency” at high levels (Cross & Fideler, 1989, pg. 211).

            Community educators concentrated on the process of community development through various competency programs, seeking out ways to engage the community and to administer positive change. As stated by Boyer and Peltason in 1988, “The community college can take the lead in long-range planning for community development. And it can serve as the focal point for improving the quality of life in the inner city” (pg. 41). In the 1980s, this meant that "Community-based education was more related to community problem-solving activities” (Cohen, 1996, pg. 280). In addition, “Community education for development represents the how (practice and program) and the why (theory and principles) of teaching social and behavioral technology to community groups” (Brookfield, 1983, pg. 158). This focus on educational development, in turn, allowed communities and specific groups to be better suited toward problem solving and building a stronger overall community.

            More than this, the 1980s saw an important shift away from educational access toward quality standards. Education moved away from its emphasis on engaging as many individuals as possible to a focus on providing and evaluating quality programs and institutions. The main challenges that 1980s community educators faced were in “delineating roles in resolving the mission dilemma of community colleges, evaluating the quality and outcomes of their programs, and planning for the future” (Cross & Fideler, 1989, pg. 210). They had to determine what constituted a quality program and how best to apply it to their unique setting.

            Educators had different perspectives for improving the quality of education. For example, “The use of the cohort learning model began to be used more often during the 1980s as a response to pressure for reform of the educational system” (McCarthy, et al., 2005, pg. 23). This cohort model, where a group of students share the same classes, teachers, and activities (McCarthy, et al., 2005, pg. 22), was intended to encourage group interactions in a variety of formats, “such as accelerate classes, learning communities collaborative, and team learning” (Flynn & Benway, 2015, pg. 19).

            Constructivism, though begun in the 1970s, also continued to develop in the 1980s (Merriam and Brocket, 2007, pg. 46-47). Jean Piaget, who is regarded as a foundational figure by many constructivists, developed some of his themes during this time period (Phillips, 1995, pg. 6). Constructivist philosophy argued that “Knowledge is the meaning that people make out of their experiences” (Merriam & Brocket, 2007, pg. 46). For Piaget, learning takes place in a “cycle of interaction between the individual and the environment” (Kolb, 1984, pg. 23). Community educators, then, were seen as working within the environment to help educate the individuals of the community toward greater development and understanding of experience.

            Several individuals and organizations contributed to the growth of adult community education in the 1980s. David A. Kolb provided a focus on experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) while others like R. Freeman Butts focused on civic engagement and learning (Butts, 1980). In fact, many of those in education had their hand in the political sphere as part of their attempts to adjust to Reagan’s amendments to the Adult Education Act. The Northern Alameda Consortium for Adult Education (NACAE) was highly involved in lobbying the Reagan administration to adopt new and progressive changes, such as changing “bilingual education” to “English as a Second Language,” which was ultimately turned down (Rose, 1991, pg. 25). Their work, though only occasionally successful, helped project the future of adult education.

The 1981 nongovernmental Coalition for Literacy was also formed and “emphasized volunteer activities, publicity for literacy issues, response to public inquiries, and fund raising to support these activities” (Rose, 1991, pg. 25). This focus on literacy, adopted by the Reagan administration, was founded by E.D. Hirsch Jr. and pushed the country toward its quality over quantity focus (Hirsch, 1987). Moreover, literacy was the prime focus throughout the 1980s in education. Most efforts toward progress and change were driven by this theme as defined by the federal government.

Throughout the 1980s, community education moved forward in its efforts to provide personal and community development. Adult and community education continued to be defined and refined, taking its cues from pressures both within the government and without. The changes that were made to education have shaped how our system works and provide insight into ways that its lessons can be applied to today.

One of the major shifts in adult community education during the 1980s was its renewed emphasis on quality education. With the various cuts in funding for many programs and the high competition for federal funds necessary for sustaining growth, community organizations and colleges were forced to improve their programs. This has led us to today where the advent of proficiency scores and standardized testing rate how well a particular school is performing.

While there are arguments on both sides of the political fence about how these standards and testing methods affect education, the original intent may have been true. With the realization of inadequacy in adult literacy and the lack of quality programs to properly train individuals for careers and societal living, the 1980s saw a shift toward providing programs to counter these needs. Adult community education today can focus on providing programs with similar goals. It can understand the need for providing quality learning opportunities where communities need it.

Community educators should look to the needs of their communities and assess how to better serve and promote development. Whether it be economic development and training, arts education or literacy programs, each community must examine their areas of weakness and seek to address them with quality programs. Not only this, but community educators must look to grow community over time, to provide avenues for individuals to gain a sense of membership in the community, and to engage community members in face to face interactions (Conrad, 2005, pg. 17-18).

Each community will have its own demographics and methods to reach them. Cohort learning, developing in the 1980s, allows for a promising model for community education. Whether it is through in-person contact or through online interactions, communities can benefit from a cohort of learners who work through the issues facing their society. For learning in a cohort in today’s world, especially in the online format, educators must look to build community and personal connections between cohort members (Conrad, 2005, pg. 16). As society becomes more individualistic and distanced, it is the role of the educator to bring communities together and to collectively work toward both individual and community development.

Adult community educators can focus on the needs of the community by developing ways for individuals to adjust to new careers, receive training in skills that will promote individual and community growth, and encourage reinvestment in the community to further develop each program. As discovered in the 1980s, engagement with the business and industrial community is important in obtaining funding and experts in given fields. However, as also discovered in the 1980s, evaluation of these programs and specific structures must be put into place to prevent corruption and exploitation.

The 1980s saw many changes to the education system, both for communities and institutions. A shift toward improved quality and efficiency spurred educators to improve their programs and to seek out new and better ways to improve their communities. At the same time, they learned that evaluation of these programs was intricate and complex, unique to each community and its needs. There is much to be gleaned from this time period in both warnings and opportunities. Educators are now faced with decisions on how best to use the messages from history and to learn from their own communities along the way.

Areas	Summary
Introduction	1.      Reagan Administration 2.      Cold war, personal computers, gender boundaries challenged
Highlights	1.      Literacy and workplace literacy 2.      Quality over quantity 3.      Evaluation of programs
Influential Factors	1.      Re-appropriations of Adult Education Act and federal funds 2.      Inclusion of private sector business in funding and training 3.      David Kolb, R. Freeman Butts, E.D. Hirsch Jr., Jean Piaget 4.      NACAE and the nongovernmental Coalition for Literacy 5.      Cohort learning 6.      Constructivism
Implications	1.      Focus on improving quality of programs while maintaining access and proper evaluation 2.      Utilize the community to identify areas of weakness for improving quality 3.      Seek outside funding while maintaining evaluation and integrity

References

Boyer, E. L., & Peltason, J. W. (1988). Building communities: A vision for a new century (Report for the Commission on the Future of Community Colleges). American Association of Community and Junior Colleges.

Brookfield, S. (1983). Community adult education: A conceptual analysis. Adult Education Quarterly, 33(3), 154-160.

Butts, R. F. (1980). The revival of civic learning: A rationale for citizenship education in American schools. Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Cohen, A. M., & Brawer, F. B. (1996). The American community college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Conrad, D. (2005). Building and maintaining community in cohort-based online learning. Journal of Distance Education, 20(1), 1-20. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ807822.pdf

Cross, K. P., & Fideler, E. F. (1989). Community college missions: Priorities in the mid-1980s. The Journal of Higher Education, 60(2), 209. doi:10.2307/1982177

Flynn, B., & Benway, R. (2015). The life, death, and rebirth of the cohort. The Adult Higher Education Alliance, 18-22. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED562628.pdf#page=16

Hirsch, & J. (1987). Cultural literacy: What every American needs to know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

McCarthy, J., Trenga, M. E., & Weiner, B. (2005). The cohort model with graduate student learners: Faculty-student perspectives. Adult Learning, 16(3-4), 22-25. doi:10.1177/104515950501600305

Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of constructivism. Educational Researcher, 24(7), 5. doi:10.2307/1177059

Rose, A. D. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the Adult Education Act. Center on Education and Training for Employment, 1-38. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/anniv40/end-mean.pdf

Veen, R. V. (2003). Community development as citizen education. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(6), 580-596. doi:10.1080/0260137032000138149